Which of the three ethical approaches described at the beginning of this module are addressed in the following areas? There are numerous examples in the scientific literature of authors behaving unethically during the process of doing their research. There is a spectrum of inadvertent error through to outright fraud. There maybe scientific errors such as inappropriate and inadequate observations, poor quality data analysis and selective quotes from references.
Further along this spectrum there maybe substantial bias in the selection of the sample or frank abuse of statistics. Salami publication is also thought to be a form of scientific misconduct whereby the same piece of work is simply sliced and repeatedly published in different journals with differing emphases.
Research studies should be judged ethically on three sets of criteria, namely: ethical principles, ethical rules, and also scientific criteria. The latter is often neglected but is important since if a study design is poor or the sample size insufficient then the study is not capable of demonstrating anything and consequently could be regarded as unethical.
The main aim of the study is to examine carer satisfaction with primary health care and social services. If you were a member of a local research ethics committee, how would you use the previously considered rules and principles to decide whether or not to give this study ethical approval?
Make suggestions as to how the ethical aspects of this protocol might be made more successful. Answers to the exercise are given at the end of this pack. Research investigators Dr. White Main aims of the study: To elucidate the views of informal carers for patients with severe arthritis on the services offered by community and social services. Potential value of the study The main outcomes of the study are to inform the subsequent health and social services delivered to patients in this category, and to enhance carer satisfaction.
Background and summary of the literature Arthritis is a major cause of disability and poor quality of life, especially in older patients. Although it is common, little is known about the perceived needs of those suffering from severe arthritis, and less still about how this effects their carers. Multiple pathology and interacting social factors make the picture more complex: many arthritics will not be housebound due to arthritis alone, and increased disposable income may increase mobility due to the purchasing of aids or drivers Brown et al.
Method Thirty carers will be sought for interview by contacting the GPs of patients known to either the Community Trust or the Department of Rheumatology. GPs will be asked to confirm that the patient concerned suffers from severe arthritis, that there is no reason not to contact the family, and to give details of those in the same household who are likely to be the main carers.
The letters will then be sent to those persons, and all those willing will be visited by a member of the research team at home to carry out a detailed semi-structured interview schedule and letters attached.
Those consenting to be interviewed will be asked to agree to tape recording of the interview for ease of transcription. Data derived from interviews will be stored in Dr. Sample size and data analysis Thirty interviews is considered a large sample in qualitative studies. Site of the study Carers homes, or at the clinic or GP surgery if they prefer.
Your name has been passed to us by your family doctor, Dr. We are therefore writing to you to ask whether you might be willing to help us with an important study into the problems which you and your relative or friend face due to their health problems. The attached sheet explains more about what we are trying to do and how you might be able to help us.
When you have read it carefully, please return the reply-slip below in the prepaid envelope saying whether we can contact you again about the study. If you have any questions before making a decision, you are very welcome to phone me on 9am - 6 p. With thanks for your time and consideration. What is the study about? Arthritis is a major cause of disability and poor quality of life, especially in older patients.
We hope that the study will improve services to families such as yours. The local Ethics Committee has supported this study. Who is involved in the study? The study is being carried out by members of the Rheumatology Department, St. Your GP has confirmed that your relative is in this group, and that you are their main carer.
Do I have to take part? The study is entirely optional. If you choose not to be involved, this will not affect your care or that of your relative in any way. What is involved? If you are willing to allow us to, one of our research team will phone you to make an appointment to visit at home or at the clinic if you prefer. They would like about 45 minutes to ask you some questions about your experiences. They will tape record your comments if this is acceptable, in order to help them make an accurate record of your comments.
What happens to the information? All information you give is entirely confidential. The tape recordings are transcribed into written words, and all the comments analysed together to give us a full picture of your experiences, and others like you.
The data is kept in a locked office at the hospital, and only the research team can see it. At the end of the study all original material will be destroyed. What if I wish to complain? Please raise any queries or difficulties with a member of the research team.
White on 9am - 6 p. If you have major cause for complaint, please contact the Patient Relations Officer at St. Anywheres who are responsible for insuring this study. Now please complete the consent form. Gladwell Dear Dr. We are therefore writing to you to ask whether you might be willing to help us with an important study into the problems which your patient and their carers face due to their health problems.
The attached sheet explains more about what we are trying to do and how they might be able to help us. We would be very grateful if, before we contact them, you could spend a few moments completing the slip below, to ensure that it is appropriate to contact them, and that we have their correct address. In return, we enclose a pen as a token of our appreciation for your time and trouble.
With thanks, Dr J. Do you in your knowledge of their situation think it is OK to contact this household? Thank you. Now please return this slip in the prepaid envelope. Validity of the research addresses the goal-based approach. Welfare of the research subject addresses the duty-based approach. Dignity of the research subject addresses the rights-based approach. Exercise 2 The kinds of issues a local research committee might raise about this protocol include: Scientific validity Are the identifiers for the patient group really clear?
Are the aims and objectives of this study really clear enough to yield a useful result? Is the value of qualitative studies such as these sufficiently great to justify the resources that will go into it? Confidentiality The professional carers hospital or community staff do not have the permission of the patient to release their details to the research team.
Similarly, the General Practitioner has no permission from either carer or patient to pass on or confirm details to the researchers. The privacy of the carer is also an issue. Practicalities The staff involved may not take the trouble to carry out the requests. The General Practitioners may not have the information they require about the carers. The researchers should not claim or imply benefit from the study as they do not know what the outcome of the data collection will be.
The implication that the professional carers have seen fit to release their details may make some patients and their carers feel they must conform and join in the study. This is possible even in qualitative studies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Evans D, Evans M. Chichester: J Wiley. Lock S, Wells F. Harrow: Scutari Press. Journal of the Royal College of Physicians, Smith R. British Medical Journal, Social Research Association. London: Thompson Press. Tranter J. Professional Nurse, Questionnaires in an anonymous survey do not have an identification number and cannot be linked back to an individual.
Anonymity should not be confused with confidentiality where individuals can be identified by the researcher. Bias is a deviation of the results from the truth.
This can either be due to random error or, more likely, due to systematic error. The latter could be caused by, for example, sampling or poor questionnaire design. A Blind study is one in which subjects in an experiment do not know which treatment they are to receive, i.
Blind studies are commonly undertaken in drug trials, because the placebo effect is so great that it can radically alter outcome measures. The researcher administering the intervention does know. A questionnaire with just a coded identification number is confidential.
This should not be confused with anonymity, where not even the researcher can identify the subjects. Constant error can be caused by the presence of a confounding variable in an experiment. It is also an alternative term for systematic bias. Construct is the extent to which measurement corresponds to the theoretical concepts validity constructs concerning the object of the study. There are two kinds of construct validity: convergent and divergent.
Content validity is a set of operations or measures, which together operationalize all aspects of a concept. Control group is the group in an experiment that is not exposed to the intervention or independent variable.
The control group exists to provide a baseline comparison for the intervention group so as to measure the influence of the independent variable. There are two types of criterion validity, concurrent and predictive: i concurrent validity is a comparison against another external measurement at the same point in time ii predictive validity is the extent to which the measurement can act as a predictor of the criterion.
Predictive validity can be useful in relation to health since it can act as a early risk indicator before a condition develops in full. Double blind procedure is one in which neither the subjects nor the researcher know which treatment the subject has been assigned to, i. This format is commonly used in drug trials to prevent biasing the outcome. Error can be due to two sources: random error and systematic error. Random error is due to chance, whilst systematic error is due to an identifiable source such as sampling bias or response bias.
External relates to the extent to which the findings from a study can be generalised validity from the sample to a wider population and be claimed to be representative. Face validity is the extent that the measure or instrument being used appears to measure what it is supposed to.
For example, a thermometer might be said to possess face validity. Flesch Reading computes readability based on the average number of syllables per word and Ease Score the average number of words per sentence. Scores range from 0 zero to Standard writing usually scores between 60 and The higher the score, the greater the number of people who can easily understand the document. This is available as a facility under Word for Windows.
Fog Index calculates the reading age of written material using the following steps: 1. Select a sample of at least words. Divide the total number of words in the extract by the number of sentences. This gives the average length of sentence. Count the number of words with 3 or more syllables. Add the number of hard words to the average number of words in a sentence. Multiply this figure by 0. The answer corresponds to the years of education needed to easily understand this piece of writing.
So, a score of 18 plus represents a college graduate. Bear in mind that the reading age of the Sun newspaper is around Instrument is the extent to which the instrument or indicator measures what it purports to validity measure. Note that a study could have instrument validity but still lack validity overall due to lack of external validity.
Internal relates to the validity of the study itself, including both the design and the validity instruments used. Intervention is related to the independent variable in an experimental design. An intervention could take the form of treatment, such as a drug treatment. Justice is the principle of being fair to all concerned. Power statistical power is the measure of the extent to which a study is capable of discerning differences or associations that exist within the population under investigation, and is of critical importance whenever a hypothesis is tested by statistics.
Conventionally studies should reach a power level of 0. Statistical power may be most easily increased by increasing the sample size. Qualitative research deals with the human experience and is based on the analysis of words rather than numbers. Qualitative research methods seeks to explore rich information usually collected from a fairly small samples and includes methods such as in-depth interviews, focus groups, action research and ethnographic studies.
Quantitative research is essentially concerned with numerical measurement and numerical data. All experimental research is based on a quantitative approach. Quantitative research tends to be based on larger sample sizes in order to produce results that can be generalised to a wider population.
Methodology and Database used; In this section which method we are using for writing our research is written like Primary which is personally going to field or through questionnaire method or by secondary method which is from census,books,journals,newspapers,grey literature, Ph. D thesis,Internet,etc. In this researcher can take the reference of already accomplished work as a starting building block of its paper. In this the authors continuously receives or asks inputs from their fellows.
It enriches the information pool of your paper with expert comments or up gradations. And the researcher feels confident about their work and takes a jump to start the paper writing. Suggestions and Recommendations: In this suggestions for future studies and recommendations can be given so that the problem is solved by any government or NGO.
For Example: better transport facilities should be provided to the rural villages. Results or Finding: This section also has more details about your research in continuation with above section. In this section all the research matter will be summed up into points so that the reader can understand easily. Conclusions: This section will have conclusions about your research.
As by adopting the above practices all major constructs of a research paper can be written and together compiled to form a complete research ready for Peer review. Most research papers conclude with a restated thesis statement. Present your thesis again, but reword it. Take a moment to explain why you believe those points support your case. If your research is inconclusive, take a moment to point out why you believe this topic bears further research. References: This section will have all the citations which we have used in writing our research.
APA: Kamraju, M. Through this paper we wanted to highlight the unknown facts which scholars face while writing academic research paper. We are not saying this is the only format but you can use this format as most of the reputed journals ask such format.
Kamraju, M, and Siva Prathaap. Kamraju, M, and M. Kamraju, M, and Vani M. Kamraju, M, M. Kamraju, and Vani M. Kamraju, M. Kothari, Chakravanti Rajagopalachari. Research methodology: Methods and techniques. New Age International, Kumar, Ranjit. Research methodology: A step-by-step guide for beginners. Sage Publications Limited, To learn more, view our Privacy Policy.
To browse Academia. Log in with Facebook Log in with Google. Remember me on this computer. Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link. Need an account? Click here to sign up. Download Free PDF. M Kamraju. Siva Prathap. Mohd Akhter Ali. A short summary of this paper. In addition to that the published research work provides a big weight-age to career growth and helps to get admission in reputed universities. Research Scholars doing Ph.
D it has become mandatory to publish their research papers at international level academic Journals or scholarly Peer Reviewed journals. And many of the students who wish to apply for further studies in technical courses will discover that relevant published research papers help during admission process. So, in this paper we will highlight and enlist the proven steps to write the research paper for peer-reviewed journals. Whatever image you create, it's a sure bet that you're envisioning sources of information--articles, books, people, and artworks.
Yet a research paper is more than the sum of your sources, more than a collection of different pieces of information about a topic, and more than a review of the literature in a field.
In other words, a research paper is an expanded essay that presents your own interpretation or evaluation or argument. When you write an essay, you use everything that you personally know and have thought about a subject. When you write a research paper you build upon what you know about the subject and make a deliberate attempt to find out what experts know.
A research paper involves surveying a field of knowledge in order to find the best possible information in that field. And that survey can be orderly and focused, if you know how to approach it.
Don't worry--you won't get lost in a sea of sources. To achieve supreme excellence in anything we do, we need more than just the knowledge. Like a cricket player aiming for world cup, we must have a positive attitude and believe that we have the ability to achieve it. That will be the real start for writing A1 research paper. Choose a topic which interests and challenges you. Your attitude towards the topic will well determine the amount of effort and enthusiasm you put into research.
If possible obtain the approval of faculty for the topic before concentrating on full scale research. The most important thing is select a subject that you can manage.
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